William Wilberforce

“So enormous, so dreadful, so irremediable did the Trade's wickedness appear that my own mind was completely made up for Abolition. Let the consequences be what they would, I from this time determined that I would never rest until I had effected its abolition.”

British abolitionist William Wilberforce was born August 24, 1759 in Kingston upon Hull, Yorkshire. He attended St. John's College, Cambridge, where he was a classmate of future Prime Minister William Pitt. Wilberforce was elected to Parliament at the age of 21 while still a student. Although small and sickly from childhood, with extremely bad eyesight, he soon became known for his oratorical skills. Diarist James Boswell said this about him: "I saw what seemed a mere shrimp mount upon the table; but as I listened, he grew, and grew, until the shrimp became a whale."

Raised in a traditional Anglican family, Wilberforce had been introduced to evangelical Christianity during the years he lived with an aunt and uncle who were followers of Methodist preacher George Whitefield. His faith was reawakened on reading William Law's A Serious Call to a Devout and Holy Life in 1785. He became increasingly involved in moral and social issues and began working for the abolition of the slave trade in 1789. John Wesley wrote these words to him shortly before Wesley's death in 1791:

               "Unless the divine power has raised you up to be an Athanasius contra mundum, I see not how you can go through your glorious enterprise in opposing that execrable villainy which is the scandal of religion, of England, and of human nature. Unless God has raised you up for this very thing, you will be worn out by the opposition of men and devils. But if God be fore you, who can be against you? Are all of them together stronger than God? O be not weary of well doing! Go on, in the name of God and in the power of his might, till even American slavery (the vilest that ever saw the sun) shall vanish away before it.
              "Reading this morning a tract wrote by a poor African, I was particularly struck by that circumstance that a man who has a black skin, being wronged or outraged by a white man, can have no redress; it being a "law" in our colonies that the oath of a black against a white goes for nothing. What villainy is this?"

Wilberforce worked with the Society for Effecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade, led by Thomas Clarkson and Charles Middleton. This was perhaps the first grass-roots civil human rights organization, using many modern methods such as lobbying, public meetings, and even a logo (pictured at right) designed by Josiah Wedgwood.


Before Parliament could be persuaded to pass anti-slavery legislation, the war against France in 1793 created a more conservative climate and no progress was made for another decade. In 1804 Wilberforce introduced a bill prohibiting British subjects from participating in the slave trade which was passed within two years and took effect in March 1807.

Wilberforce continued to work to abolish slavery, even after his retirement from Parliament in 1826. Aided by the 1832 slave revolt in Jamaica, the Slavery Abolition Act of 1833 was passed just days before his death on July 29 of that year.

Ioan Gruffudd as William Wilberforce

Wilberforce is the subject of the 2007 film Amazing Grace, released on the 200th anniversary of the Slave Trade Act of 1807. Ohio's Wilberforce University, the nation's oldest private historically black university, is named in his honor. His birthplace in Hull has been opened as a museum honoring the abolition movement.

Nat Turner Rebellion

And about this time [1825] I had a vision—and I saw white spirits and black spirits engaged in battle, and the sun was darkened—the thunder rolled in the Heavens, and blood flowed in streams—and I heard a voice saying, "Such is your luck, such you are called to see, and let it come rough or smooth, you must surely bare it." ~ Confessions of Nat Turner, as transcribed by Thomas R Gray

The slave rebellion led by Nat Turner on August 21, 1831 was the deadliest in American history with 55 whites and estimates of up to 200 blacks killed in Southampton County, Virginia.

Turner was born October 2, 1800, one week before Gabriel Prosser was hanged for leading a revolt in Richmond, 70 miles to the west. He taught himself to read and write at an early age and was deeply religious, often fasting and praying. He frequently led Baptist services and was known as "the Prophet." A series of visions over the years led to his belief that he was called to lead an uprising against the slaveowners, with this occurring in 1828:

"I heard a loud noise in the heavens, and the Spirit instantly appeared to me and said the Serpent was loosened, and Christ had laid down the yoke he had borne for the sins of men, and that I should take it on and fight against the Serpent, for the time was fast approaching when the first should be last and the last should be first... And by signs in the heavens that it would make known to me when I should commence the great work, and until the first sign appeared I should conceal it from the knowledge of men; and on the appearance of the sign... I should arise and prepare myself and slay my enemies with their own weapons."

The "sign in the heavens" was an eclipse on February 12, 1831 and he began preparation for a revolt planned for July 4, enlisting the help of fellow slaves named Henry, Hark, Nelson and Sam. Because of an illness it was postponed until August, a week after dust or other conditions caused the sun to appear bluish-green. They struck in the early morning hours, killing white families in the area, beginning in Turner's household. The group grew as large as 70 men, many on horseback. The Richmond Enquirer  reported that "Turner declared that 'indiscriminate slaughter was not their intention after they attained a foothold, and was resorted to in the first instance to strike terror and alarm.'"

As word of  the uprising spread, the local militia was called out, along with three artillery companies and men from the naval base in Richmond. The rebellion was suppressed within 48 hours. About 50 men and women were tried and executed for taking part, and many others were killed by the militia and white mobs. Some were beheaded, with their heads impaled on posts as an intimidation to others. Rumors spread as far as Alabama, leading to further violence throughout the south.

Turner was not captured until October 30, and was hanged on November 11. His attorney, Thomas Ruffin Gray, later published The Confessions of Nat Turner, based on conversations with Turner and his own research. As in the aftermath of other insurrections, the treatment of slaves became much more repressive. It became illegal to teach "slaves, free blacks or mulattoes" to read, and they were not allowed to have church services without a licensed white minister present.

The Turner Rebellion has been written about extensively, first by Herbert Aptheker in the 1943 American Negro Slave Revolts and in 1975 by Stephen B Oates in The Fires of Jubilee. It was the subject of Thomas Styron's Pulitzer Prize-winning 1967 novel The Confessions of Nat Turner, which drew criticism from many African American scholars although it was defended by Ralph Ellison and James Baldwin. Released earlier this month is The Resurrection of Nat Turner by Sharon Ewell Foster, an African American Christian novelist.

Gabriel's Rebellion of 1800

I passed by a field [near Richmond] in which several poor slaves had lately been executed, on the charge of having an intention to rise against their masters. A lawyer who was present at their trials at Richmond, informed me that on one of them being asked, what he had to say to the court in his defence, he replied, in a manly tone of voice: " I have nothing more to offer than what General Washington would have had to offer, had he been taken by the British and put to trial by them. I have adventured my life in endeavouring to obtain the liberty of my countrymen, and am a willing sacrifice to their cause: and I beg, as a favour, that I may be immediately led to execution. I know that you have pre-determined to shed my blood, why then all this mockery of a trial?" ~ British visitor, quoted in American Negro Slave Revolts by Herbert Aptheker

Gabriel, the leader of the most widespread slave rebellion in American history, was a blacksmith owned by Thomas Prosser of Richmond, Virginia. He was born in 1776 in Henrico County and some sources state that his birthday is observed on July 12. He was often was hired out to work away from Prosser's plantation and thus was able to travel freely and meet other slaves, freed black men, and white workers.

Inspired by the Haitian Revolution and taking advantage of political unrest in Richmond, he began planning a revolt in the early spring of 1800. With the help of his brothers Solomon and Martin and other leaders, an estimated 10,000 men -- including some freed blacks and working-class whites -- were recruited to participate in the insurrection planned for the night of August 30. They believed they would be joined by more whites and the nearby Catawba Indian tribe, as well as having support from the French. Their plan was to seize Capitol Square in Richmond and hold Governor James Monroe hostage. Other towns in neighboring counties would be taken as well.

The leaders gathered on August 30 but torrential rains made roads and bridges impassible, forcing plans to be delayed until the next night. However, they had already been betrayed by two slaves whose master immediately informed Governor Monroe of the plot. Monroe sent patrols through the fields and called out 650 state militiamen. Gabriel escaped to Norfork but was captured on September 14. In all, 65 men stood trial and 26 were hanged including Gabriel and his brothers.

The impact of the revolt was felt primarily in the restrictions imposed in its aftermath. Travel and education were severely restricted, and slaves being hired out was banned in 1808. Laws were passed forcing freed slaves to leave the state or risk reenslavement.

On August 30, 2007 Governor Tim Kane informally pardoned Gabriel, saying that his motivation had been "his devotion to the ideals of the American revolution — it was worth risking death to secure liberty."

Juneteenth - Part 1

"The people of Texas are informed that, in accordance with a proclamation from the Executive of the United States, all slaves are free. This involves an absolute equality of personal rights and rights of property between former masters and slaves, and the connection heretofore existing between them becomes that between employer and hired labor." ~  General Order No. 3

The surrender at Appamattox ended the Civil War and finally freed many enslaved people whose lives had remained unchanged by the Emancipation Proclamation of 1863. However, it took another two months to get the word to the areas of the Confederacy west of the Mississippi, and on June 19, 1865, General Gordon Granger brought the news to Galveston in the form of General Order No. 3 as quoted above. Granger was accompanied by 2,000 Union troops to enforce the order, which affected 250,000 enslaved people in Texas alone.


Celebrations began immediately, and have continued on the anniversary of that date, known as Juneteenth. African Americans would meet annually for picnics, barbecues, and family reunions. Often barred from other meeting grounds, they began to pool their resources to buy land where they could meet. Emancipation Park in Houston, Booker T Washington Park in Mexia, and Emancipation Park in Austin all were created during this time, with Mexia drawing crowds of over 20,000. 


By the turn of the century Juneteenth was known as Texas Emancipation Day, and its observation had spread to neighboring states. It was often sponsored by churches and black civic organizations, and included baseball games, horse races, and balls. White politicians would take advantage of the opportunity to address the crowds.


By the time of the depression involvement in Juneteenth was beginning to decrease. People were leaving farms to take factory work that wouldn't accommodate a day off to celebrate, and few elders were left who remembered the actual event. 


Tomorrow's post will be on the resurgence of Juneteenth and its recognition as a legal holiday.